The Latin text below is taken from Jean Donnadieu, Ed., Histoire orientale = Historia orientalis (© 2008, page 352-378), with reference to Franciscus Moschus, ed., Quorum prior Orientalis, siue Hierosolymitanae alter, Occidentalis historiae nomine inscribitur (1596). The English translation is machine assisted (Google translate) with manual corrections as needed.

Chapter 88: Of wild animals, lions, lionesses, wild dogs, elephants, rhinoceroses and unicorns, lynxes, tigers, beavers, bears, camels, and other monsters.

In the Promised Land and other parts of the East, one encounters animals like nowhere else. There are lions, possessing great strength in their chest, tail, and forelegs. Their cubs remain seemingly lifeless for three days and are resurrected by the roar of their parents. The lion sleeps with its eyes open, and erases its tracks with its tail to escape the hunter. They do no harm to man, except to those who provoke their anger. They spare supplicants, attack those who attack them, and fear their master when their cub is struck down before them. There is a particularly ferocious beast called the lanzani, and no animal is safe from its ferocity, for it is said that it frightens even the lion. There are also wild dogs, called papiones, more ferocious than wolves, which fill the night with their endless howls. The lioness's first litter consists of five cubs; thereafter, the number decreases with each subsequent litter until only one remains, until finally she becomes sterile. In these regions, one encounters a very beautiful animal called the panther; it is covered with small, round, black and white spots, and its scent attracts other animals as if by magic. After hunting, indeed, sated and satiated, it sleeps for three days and three nights in its den. But, having awakened, it lets out a roar, exhaling a fragrance so sweet that it surpasses all precious spices, and all animals are drawn to the sweetness of its breath, except for the serpent [dragon], which this scent kills. The panther gives birth only once, for as the time approaches, the cubs do not wait; they tear open their mother's belly with their claws, rendering it incapable of receiving the seed.

There one encounters strong and robust elephants, as large as mountains; they are warlike and full of spirit, and it is above all the sight of blood that excites their ardor in battle. Persians and Indians are accustomed to using them by placing wooden towers laden with warriors on their backs. These beasts have a very long, prominent muzzle, a kind of large intestine, called a trunk, with which they seize soldiers, devour them, and swallow them whole. To fight the Indians, Alexander the Great ordered bronze effigies to be filled with burning coals. The elephants, mistaking these decoys for men, tried to seize them and burned their muzzles. Then they began to flee from both warriors and effigies, no longer daring to approach. On another occasion, it was through the grunts and squeals of pigs, combined with the sounding of trumpets, that Alexander subdued a large number of elephants unaccustomed to such a din. Elephants travel in herds, they have affectionate relationships with one another and move about in harmony; they move about as best they can, bumping into each other as a form of mutual greeting and helping one another. They are of a cold temperament, which is why the ivory in their bones is cold and white. Indeed, if you place a cloth on ivory and set it on fire, it does not burn; the fire goes out, it is said, because of the natural coldness of the ivory. Females give birth only once, they carry their young for two years, but elephants live for thirty years; they are afraid of mice and flee from them. Above all, they fear the dragons that embrace and entangle them until they fall and are killed. So, after having their calf, they settle it on an island because of the dragons. They give birth in the water, because if the baby elephant were to fall to the ground, it would not be able to get up; indeed, their skeleton is heavy and without joints, so they cannot bend their thighs and legs. To rest, they lean against trees until they bend. The hunters cut down trees, prop them up with sticks so they don't collapse completely, and lie in ambush until the elephant returns, falls with the tree it is leaning on, and cannot get up. Most of the time, the other elephants come running when they hear its trumpeting and its cry; since they cannot bend down to help their fellow elephant up, they begin to moan and trumpet in unison as if in sympathy. They weep with the one who weeps. If they can, the baby elephants slip under the fallen elephant; sometimes they even manage to pull it up by lifting themselves, thus saving it from hunters. The elephant's skin and hair give off a scent that repels poisonous animals.

Then there are the unicorns, which the Greeks call rhinoceroses. In the middle of their foreheads, they have a very strong horn, four feet long. They attack any animal with this horn, piercing even the elephant itself, striking it on the head, causing it to fall, and kill it. Captured by hunters, this proud animal dies of its own dishonor. Yet, it is not force and hunting that can overcome it, but presenting it with a beautiful, adorned maiden who bares her breast, which soon makes it lose its wild nature; it rests against the young woman's breast, and it is during its sleep that it is captured. The monocerus is a beast of another kind, a monster of particular ferocity and whose cry is terrifying. Its head resembles that of a deer, its body that of a horse, its tail that of a pig, its legs that of an elephant. It is armed with a single, very sharp horn in the middle of its forehead. Once captured, it can be killed, but there is no way to tame it. Then there is the lynx, with its exceptionally keen eyesight, so keen, it is said, that its gaze penetrates dense bodies. Those familiar with this animal claim that its urine transforms into a natural gemstone, lyncurius. Being naturally jealous, it goes so far as to hide the greatest quantity of urine in the sand to deprive humans of the benefit of such a product. Then there are the tigers; Hyrcania is where they are most abundant. The tawny spots that cover them give them a brilliant color; they are faster than anything else, and when they run, it seems as if they are flying. They are exceptionally ferocious, cruel, and quickly enraged, especially after their cubs are captured, when they pursue the hunters who can only escape with great difficulty by throwing small glass shields in their path. The tigers gaze at their own reflections in these shields and stop, believing they have found their cubs, embrace the piece of glass, kiss it, and then try to break it with a swipe of their paw, all in vain; meanwhile, the hunters have vanished in flight. The beaver is said to be a peculiar animal, for when hunted, it castrates itself with its teeth and throws away its genitals. These are used in the manufacture of cosmetics; the beaver believes it is being hunted for this purpose, and that by throwing them to the hunters, it will escape them. He cannot live long unless his tail is in the water, so he builds his house on the water where he creates several dwellings; when the water rises, he stays on top, when it falls, he takes refuge below. There are enormous bears, with considerable strength in their arms and loins, but whose heads are fragile and weak. The female bear hastens to give birth prematurely to a formless fetus; then, she licks her own flesh and thus shapes the body of her cub. In Cappadocia, the wind impregnates mares, but their foals do not live beyond three years. There are horses that tolerate no other rider than their master, whose death grieves them more than anything, brings tears to their eyes, and makes them refuse food until they die of hunger and deprivation.

The camel is a beast that carries heavy loads, and is very ugly, to the point of frightening horses and other animals. It has a hump on its back, a long neck, long legs, its cry is terrifying, it devours barley quickly, storing it up to ruminate during the night. It is careless and moves slowly. There is, however, a kind of camel, that couriers call a dromedary, which runs fast and covers in a day a journey that would normally take several. Then there is yet another monster, the manticore, with a human face, the body of a lion, the tail of a scorpion, a triple row of teeth, red in color, and blue eyes; it hisses like a snake, imitating the modulations of a flute; it greedily seeks human flesh to devour, and its running is as swift as a bird's flight. There is another beast, the leucrota, which surpasses the others in speed; it has the body of an ass, the back of a deer, the chest and paws of a lion, a mouth that opens to its ears, its jaw is a single piece of bone. It imitates the human voice. Another beast, called the yale, has the body of a horse, the jaw of a boar, the tail of an elephant, and is a frightening black color; it lives equally in water and on dry land; armed with two very long horns, it fights with the first and carries the second on its back, in reserve; when the first becomes dull, it uses the second. The hyena is a very ferocious and cunning animal, which feeds on human flesh; it digs up corpses by searching tombs. It follows flocks and shepherds to accustom its ear to the human voice, so that it can imitate it. At night, it kills and devours the men it attracts with its calls. It also simulates their vomiting and hiccups; it tears to pieces any dogs that attack it, and no sooner has its shadow touches them than they completely cease barking. If it circles any animal, it is said, the animal becomes paralyzed. A precious stone called lyncurius is found in its eye. The onocentaur, it is said, is a monstrous beast, dual in nature, with the head of a donkey and the body of a man, or nearly so. The parandrus is a shapeshifting species, it is said; indeed, it has the great height of an ox, the head of a deer, branching antlers, and the color and density of its fur is like a bear's fur. Some claim that fear makes it change its appearance and color, so that, hidden under a white stone or green bushes, it takes on their color.

The crocodile is a quadruped born on land. It lives in river water as well as on land, but is no less strong in either case. By day it stays on land, by night in the water. It lays eggs on the ground that are the size of goose eggs. Crocodiles are found in the Nile more often than anywhere else. They leave their offspring in a place flooded by the river so that they cannot be reached. There are also some in the river of Caesarea in Palestine. They devour men and animals. Most reach up to twenty cubits in length; they have no tongue, and they only open their upper jaw; their bite is terrible, and they do not let go. They are armed with enormous claws, and are covered with impenetrable skin, like a shield. The Saracens eat their meat. Similarly, the hippopotamus is born on land. It lives on land as well as in water, where it is equally strong. Sometimes larger than an elephant, it has a curved muzzle, cloven hooves, a twisted tail, prominent tusks, and the rump and cry of a horse. At night, it forages in the fields, walking backwards, leaving a misleading footprint to avoid traps that might be set for it on its return. It is found mainly in the regions of India.

In Babylonia lives another beast, called the chimeram [an odd name for the giraffe], which is taller in front than in back. After covering it with a precious cloak, the Saracens present it with great pomp to their master to honor and glorify him. In the East, there is a kind of red bull, stocky and uncouth, with a frightening appearance, a large head, a mouth split to the ears, and a thick back, impervious to all kinds of arrows. In battle, it constantly lowers and raises its horns. There are also three-horned oxen with horses' hooves. The myrmicoleon, or what amounts to the same thing, the ant-lion, is a small animal. It is an ant to other animals, but a lion to ants. Indeed, it hides in the sand to lie in wait for the ant and its load of wheat, kills it by surprise, and eats the wheat. Leontophone is the Greek name for a small animal. The hunters capture it, burn it, and cover the pieces of meat the lions eat with its ashes, causing them to die. As a result, the lion harbors a natural hatred for it; having caught it, it tears it apart with its claws but refrains from tasting it. There are boars of such a marvelous size, with tusks a cubit long. There are even black beasts, terrifying in appearance, with a horse's head, stronger than an elephant, with three horns on their foreheads [unknown]. And then there are rats larger than foxes, that kill animals with their bites; they even attack humans, though few are harmed. [The following beasts are unknown.] Still other beasts are larger than a ram, with a goat's face, a donkey's mane, cloven hooves, and a calf's tail. Others resemble hippos with crocodile bellies, their backs covered in bristles like boars, and armed with incredibly powerful teeth. They move with the slowness of tortoises, are impervious to spears and arrows, and pulverize those who attack them with iron mallets. Still others have the cloven hooves of pigs, claws three feet long, a pig's head, but a lion's tail. In these same lands, there are wild beasts with heads armed with bones as sharp as swords, with which they pierce and kill knights armed with shields. Finally, there are the cynocephali [normally the name of a dog-headed ape], with the necks of horses and immense bodies; they breathe fire from their mouths, a fire that is deadly to humans.

Chapter LXXXVIII. De feris : leone, lanzani, canibus silvestribus, pantheris, elephantis, rhinocerotibus et monocerotibus, lynce, tigri, castore, ursis, camelis et aliis monstris.

In terra Promissionis et in aliis partibus orientis quedam sunt animalia que in aliis partibus mundi non habentur. Sunt ibi leones in pectore et pedibus anterioribus et in cauda virtutem magnam habentes, quorum fetus usque ad tertium diem, in quo ad rugitum parentum quasi de morte excitantur, aliquo sensu non utuntur. Dormit autem leo apertis oculis et cauda sua delet vestigia pedum suorum ne a venatoribus percipiantur. Hominibus nisi provocatus ad iram non nocet, parcit supplicibus, invadentes ipsum invadit ; magistrum suum metuit quando catulus ante ipsum verberatur. Est ibi sevissimum quoddam animal, quod lanzani nuncupatur, a cuius crudelitate nulla bestia potest esse tuta, nam ut dicunt ipsum leonem terret. Sunt ibi papiones quos canes silvestres appellant, lupis acriores, continuis clamoribus de nocte ululantes. Leena primo partu quinque fetus emittit, deinde per singulos partus numerum minuens postquam ad unum pervenit sterilis efficitur. Sunt ibi pulcherima animalia que panthere nominantur, ex albo et nigro minutis orbiculis superpicte, quarum odore cetera animalia mirabiliter affecta eas sequuntur. Postquam enim diversis venationibus paste et satiate fuerint, tribus diebus et noctibus continue dormiunt in speluncis suis. Evigilantes autem et rugitum proferentes, tante suavitatis odorem de gutture suo emittunt qui cuncta pretiosa aromata vincit, quod omnes bestias, exceptis serpentibus qui bono odore necantur, dulcedine spiraminis ad se trahunt. He autem non nisi semel pariunt, nam fetus earum postquam partui propinqui sunt, non expectantes debiti temporis horam, matricem unguibus lacerantes, ipsam semini retinendo prorsus reddunt inutilem.

Sunt ibi preterea elephantes robusti viribus et corpore magni velut montes ; sunt bellicosi et audaces et maxime quando eis sanguis ostenditur ad prelium amplius animantur; cum quibus Perse et Indi pugnare solent, turres ligneas cum hominibus armatis super eorum dorsa ponentes. Habent autem rostra maxima prominentia quasi ampla intestina, que appellant proboscides, cum quibus homines capiunt, devorant et transglutiunt. Magnus autem Alexander pugnaturus adversus Indos ereas statuas prunis ardentibus adimpleri precepit; putantes autem elephantes statuas illas esse homines, protendentes labra comburebantur et statim tam homines quam hominum erea simulacra fugere ceperunt, neminem audentes contingere. Alia vice grunnitu et stridore porcorum cum sonitu buccinarum multos superavit elephantes, eo quod talibus stridoribus assueti non erant. Incedunt autem gregatim sese invicem diligentes et concorditer ambulantes, motibus quibus possunt sibi applaudunt, alter alterum quasi salutando et se invicem coadiuvantes. Frigide nature sunt ; unde et ebur quod de ossibus eorum fit frigidum est et candidum. Nam si ebur panno supponatur igne superposito pannus non comburitur, sed naturali eboris frigiditate, ut dicunt, extinguitur ignis. Tantum semel gignunt fetus suos, in utero gestant annis duobus, vivunt autem annis trecentis, mures timent et fugiunt, dracones autem maxime formidant, nam ab ipsis implicati et innodati prosternuntur et necantur. Unde in insulis postquam pepererint fetus suos reponunt propter dracones. Pariunt autem in aquis, nam si fetus in terra caderet surgere non valeret; habent enim ossa solida sine iuncturis, unde crura et tibias flectere nequeunt. Quando autem quiescere volunt arboribus inclinantur et incumbunt. Venatores autem arbores secant et quibusdam obicibus ne penitus corruant fulcientes, in insidiis latent, donec revertens elephas cum arbore cui innititur cadat et resurgere non valeat. Ad barritum autem et gemitum illius plerumque concurrunt alii elephantes, cumque se incurvare et socium suum erigere nequeunt, gemunt pariter et barriunt et quasi compatientes, cum lugente lugent. Parvuli autem elephantes prout valent sese supponentes, ipsum aliquando sublevantes erigunt, et ita de manu venatorum liberatur. Per fumum autem qui fit ex inguine et pilis elephantis quelibet animalia venenata fugantur.

Sunt ibi unicornes quos Greci 'rhinocerotes’ appellant, habentes in media fronte cornu robustissimum longitudine quatuor pedum. Hoc cornu quodcunque animal ventilant, perforant etiam ipsum elephantem et, in vertice percutiendo, deiiciunt et occidunt. Quando autem a venatoribus capiuntur ex sola indignatione animal superbum moritur. Nulla tamen venantium fortitudine capi possunt; sed virgo pulchra et ornata ante eorum oculos proponitur que aperit eis sinum suum, et statim omni deposita feritate in puelle gremio suscipiuntur, et ibidem quiescentes soporati capiuntur. Monoceros autem alia est bestia quasi monstrum quoddam atrocissimum mugitu horrido, caput habens quasi cervi, corpus velut equi, caudam ad modum porci, pedes autem elephantinos, uno cornu acutissimo in medio frontis armatur; captum potest perimi sed nequaquam domari. Sunt ibi lynces que ita perspicaces habent oculos, quod solida corpora subtilitate visus penetrare dicuntur. Qui autem huius animalis naturam plenius cognoverunt, eius urinam in lapidis pretiosi naturam qui lyncurius appellatur converti dicunt. Unde invidia quadam naturali liquorem emissum arenis, in quantum possunt, abscondunt ne in usus humanos talis urine egestio convertatur. Sunt ibi tygres, quibus Hyrcanorum regio maxime abundat, fulvis colorum maculis in superficie nitentes, veloces supra modum ut volare videantur quando cursu agitantur. Sunt autem ferocissime et incomparabili rabie sevientes, precipue quando raptis catulis insequuntur venatores qui vix evadere possent nisi clipeos vitreos in ipso itinere proiicerent, in quibus quasi in speculis tigres figuram suam intuentes et fetus suos reperisse putantes sistunt, amplexantes et deosculantes ipsum vitrum et tandem pedibus confringentes, nihil reperiunt et interim venatores fugiendo evadunt. Castor autem animal est talis nature, ut dicitur, quod cum ipsum venatores sequuntur, seipsum dentibus suis castrando, genitalia proiicit. Sunt enim medicaminibus apta et propter hec se a veneratoribus estimat infestari et eis proiectis liberari. Et quoniam non potest diu subsistere, nisi caudam in aquis teneat, edificat domum suam super aquas faciens in ea mansiones diversas, ut cum aquis crescentibus in superioribus ascendat et cum decrescentibus ad inferiorem mansionem descendat. Sunt ibi preterea ursi maximi quorum virtus maxima in brachiis est et in lumbis. Caput autem habent invalidum et | debile. Et quia ursa ante fetus perfectionem immaturam prolem parere festinat, carnem quam ex se producit lambit et, fetum formando, producit in membra. Sunt eque in Cappadocia que a vento concipiunt, sed fetus earum non nisi trienno vivere possunt. Sunt autem equi qui nullum sessorem preter proprios dominos admittere volunt, quibus mortuis dolent supra modum et lacrymantur et manducare renuentes fame, et inedia moriuntur.

Camelus animal est oneriferum, deforme valde, adeo quod equis et quibusdam animalibus timorem incutiat. Habet autem strumam in dorso, collum longum et crura prolixa, horribiliter stridet, hordeum cito transglutiens reservat ut rursus ruminando tota nocte manducet. Est autem animal pigrum et lento gradu incedens. Quidam tamen sunt cameli, quos cursarios appelant seu dromedarios, qui plures dietas uno die perficiunt et velociter currunt. Est ibi preterea quoddam animal monstruosum manticora habens hominis faciem, corpus leonis, caudam scorpionis, triplicem in dentibus ordinem habens, colore rubea, oculis glauca, habens sibilum quasi serpentis, ita sonorum quod modulos imitatur fistularum, carnes humanas ad edendum avidissime affectans, ita velox cursu sicut avis volatu. Est ibi alia bestia cencrocota que velocitate precedit bestias universas, habens corpus asini, clunes cervi, pectus et crura leonis, vastum oris hiatum usque ad aures, loco autem dentium os habet solidum, vocem autem hominis imitatur. Est ibi alia bestia, que dicitur eale, cuius corpus equi, maxilla apri, cauda elephantis, nigro colore horrens, in aqua et in terra equaliter potens, habens cornua maxima quorum uno pugnans, aliud post terga reflectit, quo obtuso, reliquum ad pugnam dirigit. Hyena bestia est sevissima et dolosa valde, carnibus humanis vescitur, ex sepulchris mortuorum effodiendo extrahit cadavera ; pabula pastorum insequitur ut auditu assiduo voces humanas imitari possit, quibus vocibus homines nocte accitos devorat et perimit. Vomitus quoque humanos et singultus simulans, canes concurrentes dilaniat qui, postquam eius umbram attigerint, latratum prorsus amittunt. Dicitur autem quod, quodcunque animal lustraverit, movere se non possit. In oculis eius lapis pretiosus reperitur, qui hyena vocatur. Onocentaurus autem animal est, ut dicitur, monstruosum, natura biforme, habens caput velut asini, corpus autem quasi hominis. Parandri vero species multiformis dicitur esse : est enim boum magnitudine, ramosis cornibus, cervino capite, ursino colore et pilis villosis et condensis. Hunc affirmant habitum et colorem metu variare, ita quod cum in aliquo delitescit loco sive saxo albo sive frutetis virentibus ad eorum similitudinem permutatur.

Crocodilus animal est quadrupes quod in terra nascitur, in fluminibus tamen sicut in terra inhabitat, nec minorem habet potentiam in aqua quam in terris. Per diem autem humi frequentius acquiescit, nocte vero in aquis; habet autem ova velut anserum que in terra profert. In fluvio autem Nili plusquam alibi inveniuntur crocodili. Reponunt autem ova sua ubi fluvius exuberans non possit attingere. In flumine autem Cesaree Palestine similiter habitant; devorant autem tam homines quam animalia, plerumque ad viginti cubitos longitudinis excrescunt, linguis carent, maxillas superiores movent, morsus habent horribiles et tenaces, unguium immanitate armati sunt, maxima pellis firmitate quasi clipeo muniuntur. Horum carnem Saraceni manducant. Hippopotamus similiter in terra nascitur, in aquis sicut in terra similiter potens est et inhabitat. Est autem plerumque maior elephantibus, habens rostrum resupinum, ungulas bifidas, caudam tortuosam, dentes prurigineos, dorso et hinnitu similis equo. Noctibus autem segetes depascit ad quas pergit quasi retrogradiens ut fallente vestigio revertenti nulle insidie preparentur. In partibus autem Indie precipue reperiuntur.

Est autem in Babylonia quedam alia bestia, quam chimeram appellant, alta in anteriori parte, submissa autem in posteriori. Hanc autem in magnis solemnitatibus pallio operientes pretioso, domino suo ut ipsi honorifice et magnifice serviant presentant Saraceni. Sunt preterea quidam fulvi tauri in partibus orientis, condensis et asperis setis horridi, grandi capite, oris rictu ab aure usque ad aurem patente, omnia spicula duro et impenetrabili tergo repellunt, cornua autem ad pugnam vicissim deponunt vel producunt. Ibi etiam boves sunt tricornes, pedes equinos habentes. Myrmicoleon autem seu formicoleon, quod idem est, modicum est animal, aliis animalibus est velut formica, formice autem est quasi leo. Absconditur enim in pulvere insidiando formice frumentum portanti, quam ex improviso perimit et frumentum consumit. 'Leontophonos' grece dicitur quoddam animal parvum quod capiunt venatores et exurunt, cuius cineres super carnes conspergunt, ex quibus carnibus leones comedentes illico moriuntur. Unde leones huiusmodi bestiam naturali quodam odio persequuntur, quam captam unguibus statim dilaniant, ex ea vero gustare non audent. Sunt ibi porci magne et mire magnitudinis, habentes dentes cubiti unius; quedam etiam alie bestie nigre et horribiles, capitibus similes equis, elephantibus fortiores, tria cornua in frontibus habentes; mures etiam vulpibus maiores morsu animantia perimentes, homines autem licet mordeant parum tamen eos morsibus molestant; alie etiam bestie, ariete maiores, facie hircina, collo velut aselli crinito, ungulis bifidis et cauda vitulina. Sunt insuper alie quedam bestie similes hippopotamis, pectore velut crocodilus, setas quasi porci in dorsis habentes, dentibus ad bellum fortissimis, tarde in incessu sicut testudo, que non lanceis vel sagittis penetrari possunt, sed malleis ferreis ab his qui contra ipsas preliantur conteruntur. Sunt alie bestie pedes bifidos velut porcus habentes, cum ungulis trium pedum magnitudine, caput porcinum, caudam vero habentes leoninam. Quedam autem fere in eisdem partibus, ossa quasi ferrata acuta valde velut gladium habent in capite cum quibus milites armatos cum clipeis transfodientes interficiunt. Sunt preterea cynocephali, cervicem equinam cum immensis corporibus habentes, flammis qua ex ore aspirant homines perimentes.

Chapter 89: On serpents, the dragon, and the basilisk.

These eastern lands give rise to a great variety of snakes. The snake is cold-tempered, and thus is of little or no harm at all, except after it has warmed itself. At night it is less harmful than during the day, for it cools down under the effect of the night dew. Because of the cold, in winter it curls up in its nest, but summer awakens it. A person touched by the venom first stiffens, then, once the venom has warmed, the force of the poison kills them. It is said that the venom cannot be fatal to humans unless it reaches the blood. The snake flees from a naked person, it is said, and dares not harm them. When attacked, it hides its head and offers its body to be struck, for by saving its head, it can live even without a body. It spits out its venom before entering the water and takes it back when it leaves. If, by chance, it cannot find it, it repeatedly beats its head against the ground and dies of grief. It lives a long time because, as it ages, it consumes its own flesh by depriving itself of food until it becomes so thin that its skin stretches and it can pass through the crevice of a stone. Thus, it regenerates by shedding its old skin and regains its youth. It flees from pleasant scents, which most often kill it. It is sometimes born from human marrow.

Of all the snakes and land animals, the greatest is the dragon; emerging from its lair, it sometimes leaps into the air with a powerful thrust of its own momentum. It has a crest, a small mouth, narrow nostrils for breathing, and if it sticks out its tongue, it does not bite. It kills with its tail when it seizes someone, and even the elephant is not safe despite its great size. The dragon fouls the air with its breath, spreading death with its poisonous spittle; lacking feet, it crawls on its belly and chest. A precious stone, called dracontias, is extracted from its brain. If the lion is the king of the animals, the basilisk is considered the king of the snakes. Thus, basiliscus in Greek is translated as regulus in Latin. All other snakes fear and flee from it, for it kills them with its breath, just as it kills men with its poisonous gaze. And any bird touched by that gaze is struck down. It is half a foot long, striped with white bands, and it defiles and burns the place it passes, rendering vegetation barren, and infecting and poisoning trees. Everything it bites and kills, no beast or bird can eat. The house where any piece of basilisk is kept, no snake enters, no bird defiles it, and no spider spins its web there. A weasel introduced into the basilisk's burrow overcomes it; at the sight of the weasel, the basilisk flees, and the weasel pursues and kills it. In the region of Jericho, near the wilderness of the Jordan, there is a snake called tyrus. With its flesh and other substances mixed with it, a kind of electuary, theriac, is made, which neutralizes any venom affecting the human body. This product is effective against all venoms, but is useless against that of the tyrus. The chameleon is called salamander in Greek, and stellion in Latin, it is said. It has four legs, almost the appearance of a lizard, a very long, coiled tail, hooked and sharp claws, a body covered in scales, and skin like a crocodile's. A kind of wool is collected from its skin, from which incombustible belts are woven [asbestos]. This animal lives in fire, and not only does it not burn itself, but often even manages to extinguish it. It has a languid gait and kills anyone who manages to kill it, for if a bird happens to taste its flesh, it soon dies. Of all venomous animals, it has the greatest capacity for harm. The others kill their victims one after another; it kills several at once. Indeed, when it crawls up a tree, it contaminates the fruit with its venom, and whoever eats it dies. If it happens to fall into a well, the force of the poison kills all who drink from it, without exception.

The viper received this name because it reproduces by force; according to its nature, the male dies during mating, the female during giving birth, it is said. The pleasure of love drives the female into a kind of madness, causing her to sever the head of the male she has in her mouth. When the female's belly begins to swell, the young do not wait for the time nature has allotted; they gnaw at her flanks and force their way out, killing their mother. Certain words have the power to enchant the asp, neutralizing its venom. When it sees enchanters approaching, it presses one ear to the ground and plugs the other with its tail so as not to hear the enchanter's poisonous voice; in this, it demonstrates wisdom. The lizard is a snake that, as it ages, becomes blind. Then it enters a hole in a wall facing east, looks at the sun, and thus regains its sight. The hypnapis is a type of asp that kills those it bites while they sleep. Indeed, its venom induces sleep in its victims, and they die in their sleep. The scitalis's body shines with a thousand glints, the shimmering light of which paralyzes anyone who looks at it. It has a hot temperament, so much so that in winter it sheds its skin. If it happens to bite someone, the victim is consumed as if by fire. The amphisbaena is a two-headed snake, one head in its normal position, the other at the tail, and it runs from one to the other. The seps is small, but its venom inflames flesh and bones. The snakes called tarante [another name for the scorpion] are small. Those bitten are severely tormented, sometimes dying in agony, and nothing can save them except theriac. The cerastes has horns on its head; it hides in the sand, only showing its horns to birds. When they land on it, it kills them. The bite of the hemorrhois [a kind of asp] causes bleeding and death by bursting the veins of its victim, who then loses all its blood. It was to protect against the three serpents that decimated the children of Israel that the bronze serpent was raised on a pole. The serpents in question were said to be the dipsa, the situla, and the scorpion. The dipsa is so agile that it strikes unseen; one steps on it inadvertently. Its sting is deadly to humans, both because of the fear it instills and the swelling it causes. The bite of the situla [another name for the dipsa] causes death by thirst. The scorpion has a seductive face, even, it is said, like that of a young girl, but the stinger on its tail is poisonous. In India live snakes so enormous that they are reputed to devour deer and swim across the ocean. There are snakes that eat white pepper and have precious stones in their skulls. They fight each other every year, nearly annihilating one another. Some, like the cerastes, have horns with which they try to strike humans.

Chapter LXXXIX. De serpentibus, dracone, basilisco.

In predictis autem partibus orientis maxima et varia procreatur serpentium multitudo. Sunt autem serpentes natura frigidi, unde parum vel nihil nocent nisi postquam incaluerint. Nocte autem minus ledunt quam die, eo quod nocturno rore frigescunt. Hyemali autem frigore in nodos torquentur, estate autem resolvuntur. Qui autem veneno inficitur, primitus obrigescit; postquam vero calefactum fuerit venenum, hominem ariditate interficit. Dicunt autem quod nocere non possit nisi hominis sanguinem contigerit. Hominem autem nudum fugit, ut dicitur, nec ipsum audet molestare; caput autem abscondens totum corpus obiicit ferienti, nam si caput eius evaserit, nihilominus vivit amisso corpore. Ingressurus autem aquas venena deponit, postquam autem ab aquis exierit eadem resumit; quod si forte casu quolibet amissa non invenit, terre frequenter caput allidens, moritur pre dolore. Vivit autem serpens longo tempore; nam postquam senuerit, ieiunando carnes proprias consumit, donec cute pre macie laxata per foramen petre transit, ubi pellem veterem deponendo iuventutem recuperans renovatur. Odorem autem bonum fugit, quo plerumque necatus moritur. De medullis autem hominum quandoque serpens procreatur.

Inter omnes serpentes et supra omnia terre animantia maximus est draco qui, abstractus a spelunca sua, quandoque super aerem fertur ipsum concitando et vehementer impellendo. Est autem cristatus, ore parvo et strictis arteriarum fistulis, quibus spiritum attrahit et linguam exerit, dentibus autem non nocet. Cauda autem, si quem ligaverit, occidit; a quo nec elephas tutus est corporis sui magnitudine. Auram autem spirando inficiens flatu pestifero mortem ingerit, pedibus autem carens pectore et ventre serpit. De cerebro autem eius lapis pretiosus dracontias exciditur. Sicut leo rex animalium, ita basiliscus rex dicitur esse serpentium. Unde idem est ‘basiliscus’ grece, quod regulus latine. Timent eum et fugiunt omnes serpentes, eo quod solo afflatu necat illos, homines autem visu venenato interficit. Ab eius etiam aspectu nulla avis illesa pertransit. Est autem longitudine semipedalis, albis maculis lineatus, terram per quam transit polluit et exurit, extinguit herbas, arbores inficit et corrumpit. Quidquid morsu eius occiditur, nec fera, nec alite depascitur. Edes autem in quibus aliqua corporis eius particula reservatur, nec serpentes ingrediuntur, nec aves fedant, nec intexunt aranee. A mustelis tamen basiliscus vincitur, quas homines cavernis eius inferunt, quibus visis fugit serpens, ille persequuntur et occidunt. In partibus autem Hierico, circa solitudines Iordanis, quidam serpens invenitur, qui tyr nominatur, ex cuius carnibus cum quibusdam que illis admiscentur, fit confectio quedam quasi electuarium, que dicitur tyriaca, omne venenum in corpore humano superans et extinguens. Cum autem contra omne aliud venenum valeat, contra predicti tiri venenum nihil prodest. ‘Salanmandra’ grece dicitur, ‘stellio’ latine; nominatur etiam, ut dicunt, ‘chameleon’. Est autem quadrupes habens faciem quasi lacerte, caudam prolixam et tortuosam, ungues subtili aduncitate hamatos, corpus asperum, cutem qualis est in crocodilis. Profert autem ex cute quasi quandam lanam, de qua zone contexte comburi non possunt igni. Predictum enim animal vivit in igne et non solum non uritur, sed plerumque incendium extinguit. Est autem pigrum incessu; victorem suum interfectum perimit, nam si vel ales modicum ex eo comederit illico moritur. Inter omnia venenata animalia maximam habet nocendi virtutem, cetera enim singulos perimunt, hec plurimos pariter interimit. Nam si arbori irrepserit poma omnia adeo inficit veneno, quod quicunque ex eis comederint moriuntur. Si autem in puteum ceciderit vis veneni eius omnes potantes interimit.

Vipera serpens est sic dicta, eo quod vi pariat; cuius natura ea esse traditur, ut pater in conceptione moriatur, mater vero in partu necetur. Voluptate enim libidinis quasi in insaniam versa, caput maris ore receptum prescindit; cuius cum ad partum venter intumuerit, catuli non expectantes maturam nature solutionem, corrosis eius lateribus, cum matris interitu vi erumpunt. Aspis quorundam verborum virtute incantatur ne veneno noceat. Ipsa vero quando percipit incantantes, unam aurem terre affigit, alteram cauda obturat, ut non audiat vocem venefici incantantis sapienter. Saura serpens est qui, quando senescit, oculi eius cecantur; ipse vero ingreditur foramen parietis respicientis ad ortum solis et oculos contra solem intendit, et sic lumen recuperat. Hypnapis vero genus est aspidis, somno quos mordet interimens. Veneno enim somnum immitit, et quos mordet dormiendo perimit. Scytalis tanta prefulget tergi varietate ut notarum genera videntes retardet. Est autem tanti fervoris ut hyeme pellem deponat. Huius morsu siquis tangitur velut ardore igneo consumitur. Amphisbena serpens est duo habens capita, unum in loco suo, alterum in cauda, utroque autem capite currit. Seps exiguus serpens est qui simul carnem et ossa veneno consumit. Serpentes dicti tarante modice sunt quantitatis. Illi autem quos pungunt vehementer angustantur, et nisi theriaca eis subveniatur, quandoque anxietate moriuntur. Cerastes serpens est habens in capite cornua, abscondit totum corpus in pulvere, cornua sola volucribus ostendens. Postquam autem super eam aves insederint eas interimit. Hemorrhois serpens est morsu sanguinem eliciens et, dissolutis venarum meatibus, totum cruorem extrahens mortem ingerit. Contra tria genera serpentum qui filios Israel in deserto perimebant erectus est serpens ereus in palo. Hi fuisse dicuntur : dipsades, situle, scorpiones. Dipsas adeo subtilis est, quod quasi invisibiliter percutiens, cum calcatur non videtur. Inducens autem timorem et inflationem homines perimit. Situla quos inficit siti perimit. Scorpio blandum et quasi virgineum dicitur habere vultum, sed aculeum habet in cauda venenosa. Sunt in India serpentes tam vasti, ut cervos devorare dicantur et ipsum oceanum transnatare. Sunt alii serpentes piper album comedentes, lapides pretiosos in capitibus habentes; singulis autem annis inter se preliantes, sese mutuo ex magna parte interficiunt. Habent autem quidam serpentes cornua velut arietes, quibus homines ventilando percutiunt.

Chapter 90: Varieties of rare birds and fish.

Moreover, in the East, one finds marvelous birds that are encountered nowhere else. The phoenix is a very beautiful, singular bird, large in size, remarkable for its plumage, talons, and gaze. Like the peacock, it is said to have a crest on its head. Its neck has the sheen of gold, its feathers are a shade of pink, purple at the rear, and its tail is azure blue. It lives for many years. As it grows old, it chooses a place, the best in quality and pleasantness, in the center of which flows a beautiful and abundant spring of calm clarity, near a magnificent tree of nobility and size. At the top, the bird builds itself a nest, a sepulcher rather, with all kinds of aromatic herbs. With the help of the sun's heat, it sets it ablaze by beating its wings, and then it is reborn from its ashes. The parrot is a bird from India; it is green with a golden neck. It has a long tongue that it uses to pronounce articulated words, so much so that, if you didn't see it, you might think it was a human speaking. It greets you by saying "ave" or "chay." For the first two years, it learns quickly and faithfully remembers words; once it gets old, it becomes less docile and forgets more quickly. The noblest parrots have five toes on their feet, the others only three. The ibis is a bird of the Nile that purges itself with its beak by injecting water into its anus. It gives birth to its chicks through its beak and destroys snake eggs, bringing this much-appreciated food to its brood. The pelican is so named for its white plumage. This bird goes so far as to kill its young, mourning them for three days afterward. It then strikes itself with its beak and revives its dead chicks by sprinkling them with its blood. Dyomeda are, for the Latins, the birds that the Greeks call herons. They are said to shower caresses on Greeks who approach them, but attack and bite people of other nations. There are large swans the color of snow, with hard and enormous beaks; by their lamentations and tears, they signify the announcement of their own end or the murder of a king. Griffins are particularly ferocious birds; their cruelty is of unparalleled savagery. They are of great body and great strength, so that armed men prey upon them and slay them. The bittern stores a quantity of food in the stomach which it then brings out to eat.

Sirens are considered to be young girls for their upper bodies, but for their lower bodies, they resemble a kind of bird. This is why they are classified among seabirds, even though they are monsters. In India, there are bats larger than doves; they have human teeth, with which they attack head-on to sever noses, ears, and other limbs. In the same regions live other large birds, like vultures; they are red in color, with black beaks and legs. They are harmless to humans and feed only on fish caught in rivers. In Egypt, chicks are hatched without the help of hens, by incubating eggs in the heat of an oven. Thus, if needed, as many chicks as there are eggs are available each day. There are also doves there that serve as messengers. They carry their masters' letters under their wings, covering great distances in a short time. They are very useful, even more so when other messengers do not dare to cross enemy territory. As for the birds that Alexander saw in Persia and that restored health to the sick whom they looked at directly [caladrius] - sick people who would undoubtedly have died if they had refrained from looking at them- and also the birds that Saint Brendan saw [barnacle goose] in a tree of great beauty reaching up to the sky - one of which explained to him that they were souls doing penance in the physical form of birds - whether this is true or possible, wise reader, I leave you to judge!

In the Ganges River live eels thirty feet long. There are fish there equipped, like crabs, with two claws six cubits long, with which they seize elephants and drag them underwater [ceruleum]. The Indian Ocean produces sea-turtles whose shells are so large that the natives use them as shelters. Crabs in the Western Sea have shells as hard as crocodile skin; they catch men and drown them. In these lands, there are fish with whose skins men make beautiful and large garments. At the bottom of the ocean, there are fish resembling land animals; some of them move on their feet and, even more, feed on the fruit of trees that grow from the sea. The sea-urchin is a fish half a foot long; it has such a great power that it can stop ships by attaching itself to them. As the wind blows, the storm rages, and the tide swells, the boat remains motionless as if it had taken root, unable to move forward. The small fish holds it less than it clings to it. Moray eels are said to be female, conceived from the serpent. That is why fishermen attract them by hissing like snakes. To kill them, one uses maces or mallets, which is not without pain when striking the head, but when one reaches the tail, the result is immediate. Precious pearls are found in certain seashells. It is said that they come ashore at night and conceive pearls from the celestial dew. At the waxing moon, they fill up; at the waning moon, they empty. The pearl-oyster is a kind of shellfish or snail on which the crab feeds using an astonishing stratagem. Since it cannot open the shell, it lies in ambush, and when it opens, it surreptitiously throws in a small pebble that prevents it from closing; then it comes to devour it. Dolphins are fish that, as a storm approaches, appear on the surface of the water and begin to play. Of all fish, the whale is the largest. However, the narrow openings of its mouth only allow it to swallow small fish, which it attracts with the scent of its breath in order to catch and devour them. When a storm arises, it rises to the surface of the seas. Some whales are so large that they resemble mountainous islands; driven by the storm, sailors tie their ships to them, believing they are on dry land, and light fires. Then the monster, under the effect of the burning, drags both ships and sailors to the bottom.

Chapter XC. De avibus quibusdam et piscibus raris.

Sunt preterea in partibus orientis aves mirabiles que nusquam alibi reperiuntur. Est ibi phenix, avis singularis et pulcherima, magna corpore, plumis autem unguibus et oculis decora. Dicitur autem quod in capite cristam habeat velut pavo. Collum eius aureo colore refulget, roseas habet pennas, in posterioribus purpureas, caudam habet cerulei coloris, vivit autem multis annis. Dum autem se viderit senuisse, petit locum preeminentem valde et amenum in cuius medio fons est magnus, ubertate profluus et serenitate preclarus, in cuius margine arbor est nobilis et sublimis valde. In huius vertice de variis aromaticis speciebus nidum seu sepulchrum sibi construit. Ex calore autem solis plausu alarum seipsam accendens, de cineribus suis innovata resurgit. Psittacus avis est Indie colore viridi, torque aureo, grandi lingua, unde articulata profert verba, ita ut si eam non videas hominem loqui putes. Homines autem salutat, dicens: "Ave!" vel "Chere!" Primo et secundo anno citius discit et tenacius verba retinet, paulo senior indocilis est et cito obliviscitur. Nobiliores quinos habent in pedibus digitos, ceteri autem tantum ternos. Ibis avis est Niliaca; semetipsam purgat rostro aquam in posteriora fundens. Ore autem parit pullos, serpentum populatur ova, gratissimam nidis suis ex his escam deportans. Pellicanus dicitur pellem canam habens. Hec avis fertur occidere pullos suos eosque per triduum lugens, seipsam rostro proprio vulnerat et sic pullos occisos proprii sanguinis aspersione vivificat. Diomedie latine dicuntur aves quas Greci ‘herodios’ appellant. Si Grecus ad eas accesserit, ipsis, ut dicunt, blandiuntur, alias autem nationes morsibus impugnant. Sunt autem magnitudine cygnorum, colore niveo, duris et ingentibus rostris, quando autem lachrymosis vocibus dolent vel sui mutationem vel regis interitum prenunciando significant. Gryphes aves sunt ferocissime ultra omnem rabiem sevientes; sunt autem corpore magne et adeo fortes quod armatos homines preliando superant et occidunt. Onocrotalus avis que multas simul in ventre recondit escas, postea vero extrahit et manducat.

Sirenes licet in parte superiori virginibus assimulantur, partes tamen inferiores avis speciem pretendunt. Unde inter aves marinas eas deputant, licet sint monstruose. In partibus autem Indie sunt vespertiliones, columbis maiores, habentes quasi hominum dentes; homines autem in faciem percutiunt, nares et aures et alia membra eis amputantes. In eisdem autem partibus sunt alie volucres magne velut vultures, rubei coloris, pedibus et rostris nigris. Hominibus autem non nocent, sed tantummodo pisces, quos de fluminibus extrahunt, devorant. In Egypto autem ex ovis gallinarum in clibano calefactis absque matrum cubatu pulli procreantur; unde quot ova habent tot pullos eodem die predicto artificio, si placet habere possunt. Sunt preterea columbe que, nunciorum fungentes officio, litteras dominorum sub alis deportant hora tempore modico, multa terrarum spatia transeuntes. Sunt autem valde utiles, maxime quando per terras inimicorum alii nuntii transire non audent. De his autem avibus [caladrius] quas Alexander vidit in Perside, que si in faciem egrotantium inspicerent convalescebant, si autem respicere noluissent absque dubio moriebantur, et de his similiter quas sanctus Brandanus vidit [bernace] in quadam excelsa et pulcherima arbore, quarum una respondit ei quod essent spiritus penitentiam suam in corporibus volucrum ibidem facientes, utrum verum sit aut possibile, prudenti lectori iudicandum relinquimus.

In flumine Gange sunt anguille longitudine trigenta pedum; in quo etiam quidam vermes sunt qui, instar cancri, bina habent brachia longitudine sex cubitorum, quibus elephantes corripiunt et undis immergunt [ceruleum]. Indicum etiam mare gignit testudines de quarum testis capacia hospitia sibi faciunt homines. Sunt autem cancri in mari occidentali qui homines apprehendunt et submergunt, habent autem terga dura velut crocodili. Sunt ibi pisces ex quorum pellibus homines ampla et pulchra sibi faciunt indumenta. In fundo autem oceani quidam sunt pisces cum animantibus terrestribus similitudinem habentes; quorum quidam pedibus ambulantes fructus arborum in imo maris nascentium manducant. Echinus piscis est semipedalis tante virtutis ut navem adherendo retineat. Ruant venti, seviant procelle, tollantur fluctus, navis tamen quasi radicata immobilis stat nec procedere potest, pisciculo non tam eam detinente quam ei adherante. Murene femini sexus tantum esse dicuntur et a serpente concipi. Unde a piscatoribus tanquam a serpente sibilo evocantur. Fustibus et malleis cum difficultate interimuntur, capite percusso vix interimi possunt, cauda statim necantur. In quibusdam conchis marinis lapides preciosi inveniuntur; dicunt enim quod nocturno tempore littus adeunt et rore celesti margarita concipiunt. Decrescente luna vacuantur, crescente iterum implentur. Ostrea autem species sunt concharum seu cochlearum quarum carnibus cancri miro ingenio vivunt; quia enim testas earum aperire non valent, explorant in insidiis, quando claustra aperiunt et latenter iniicientes lapillum, impedita conclusione, carnes earum corrodunt. Delphini pisces sunt qui, tempestate imminente, in superficie undarum apparentes ludunt. Cete autem omnium piscium maximum est; habet autem strictos oris meatus unde non nisi parvos pisciculos deglutit, quos odorifero oris anhelitu evocans et ad se trahens in ventrem suum mittit. Cum autem tempestas oritur in mari, attolit se fluctus. Quidam autem ceti ita magni sunt, quod insule vel montes videntur; quibus, urgente tempestate, naute naves religantes dum credunt se super solidam terram manere ignes accendunt, quos bellua sentiens, tam naves quam nautas secum trahit in profundum.

Chapter 92: On certain miracles of western regions, on the qualities of common birds.

To catch birds, the fox cub lies on its back on the road, playing dead as if holding its breath. The ant cuts grains of wheat in two so that they cannot germinate underground. To rejuvenate itself, the stag lures the snake out of its lair, devours it, and, driven by thirst and the poison's effect, goes to the spring where it regains its youth after drinking the water. When stags swim across water, each one shifts the weight of its antlers onto the rump of the one in front of it, it is said; when the first one tires, the last one takes its place. To catch flies, the spider weaves a fine web of a substance extracted from its abdomen. If a wolf sees a man before being seen, the man becomes hoarse. Pursued by shepherds, the wolf, after catching a sheep, does not bite it; he uses gentleness to get her onto his back, to prevent her from struggling under the bite and delaying his escape, or so the story goes. When an ape gives birth to two babies, it takes a dislike to one and affection to the other. It carries the baby it loves in its arms, while the other clings to its neck or back. Only dogs recognize the name given to them; they love their master tenderly; for him, they brave death. Even driven by hunger, they do not abandon the the body of their slain master. They sleep willingly, but by keeping watch at night, they guard their master's home. The cat's eyesight, when hunting mice, is so keen that its glow is a fire that pierces the darkness of night. The weasel hunts snakes and rats; it is naturally cunning. In the house where it nurses its young, it often moves them so they cannot be found. The hedgehog is so clever that, after cutting grapes from a vine or fruit from a tree, it rolls itself over them to secure them with its quills and carry them off. In case of danger, it immediately curls into a ball and prepares to defend itself. Nature dictates that a newborn lamb recognizes its mother's bleat among others. Without hesitation, it flees from the wolf it hates without ever having seen it, but it fears neither horse nor any other animal and does not flee when it sees them.

The eagle holds its young in its talons and exposes them, suspended thus, to the sun's rays. Those who do not avert their gaze, it deems worthy of its kind; it spares and raises them. But if they lower their eyes, it drives them away like degenerate offspring. When very old, it flies high into the clouds. The warmth of the nearby sun dispels the fog from its eyes, its heavy plumage is lightened; it suddenly dives, sinks into the waters, and thus regains its youth. It breaks its hooked beak against a stone and finds a new one to feed with. The turtledove never parts with its mate as long as he is alive. Once he is dead, it knows no other; it remains alone, sad and mournful, perched on the dead branch of a tree. The raven feeds its young only when their feathers turn black; then it knows they are like itself. Cranes fly according to an established order. The first in the flock commands, urging the others to maintain their rank; when she loses her voice, another replaces her at the same post. At night, they divide the watch hours and balance pebbles between their talons, which, when they fall, betray those who are dozing. They darken with age. When storks cross the sea, crows precede them and serve as guides. Storks surround their young with such great care and affection that they have a strong tendency to stay warm in their nest and never stop incubating, thus losing their feathers. Moreover, they are enemies of snakes. The ostrich eats iron, and neglects to incubate its eggs, leaving them under the sand, whose warmth causes them to hatch. When the heron flies high, it is announcing a storm; for it fears rain and storms so much that it flies above the clouds. The jackdaw hides any gold or coins it finds. The peacock, when contemplated and admired, spreads its tail, displaying its beauty; then, revealing the ugliness of its legs, it lowers its tail. Its cry is shrill, its gait tranquil, its head resembles that of a serpent, its breast plumage is the color of sapphire; it has reddish feathers and a long, speckled tail. When the hawk sees that its young are able to fly, it no longer brings them food; it strikes them with its wing, and pushes them out of the nest, forcing the young to hunt so as not to make them lazy adults. The wild hawk snatches domestic animals and devours them immediately; domesticated, it hunts wild animals for its master. The wood-dove belongs to the dove family; Deprived of his mate, he remains alone, no longer yearning for the repose of verdant foliage, no longer seeking to satisfy the pleasures of love elsewhere [a confusion with the turtledove]. The dove feeds the young of others, watches the hawk in the water's reflection, builds her nest high and out of reach of harmful beasts; her song is a lament. She does not feed on carrion, but on pure grain; she is without bitterness; she flies in flocks, and her beak is not used to harm.

The hoopoe is a most disgusting bird with a crest as straight as that on a helmet; it dwells on graves and dung heaps. Whoever touches hoopoe blood before going to sleep dreams of being suffocated by demons. The swallow always avoids roofs that threaten to collapse; it is sacred to birds of prey, who never attack it. The swallow does not eat in the nest; it catches its prey while flying, and it knows the timing of its migration. The partridge is a repugnant and treacherous bird. It steals other birds' eggs to incubate them. But when the chicks hear their mother's voice, they abandon the incubating partridge to return to the one who gave birth to them. If anyone approaches her nest, she runs to meet them, feigns weakness in her legs or wings, pretends to slow her pace, and allows herself to be caught soon after. After imperceptibly driving the intruder away, she quickly takes flight. But when they fear being caught, the young lift the clods of earth with their feet and hide underneath, safe and sound. The owl conceals itself by day and at night it searches for food. It is wary of all birds, for they will hunt it and tear it to pieces if they cannot seize and capture it. The vulture follows armies to feed on carcasses, but readily walks as well, hence its name, gradipe. At the end of summer, quails cross the seas and, like humans, are susceptible to death. The swan's feathers are snow-white, but its flesh is black. It is said that it flies to lyre players and that its song imitates the sound of this instrument.

Chapter XCII. De miraculis quibusdam regionum occidentalium, de avium vulgarium qualitalibus.

Vulpecula, ut volucres capiat, in via resupina protenditur et se mortuam et quasi anhelitu simulat. Formica granum frumenti, ne germinet in terra, per medium secat. Cervus ut renovetur statu serpentem de caverna extrahit, quo devorato, fontem urgente veneno sitiens, postquam aquas biberit recuperat iuventutem. Cervi autem aquas natando transeuntes, cornua ponderosa clunibus suis invicem sustentare dicuntur, postquam autem primus fessus fuerit, loco eius ultimus succedit. Aranea de visceribus suis, ut muscas capiat, subtilia retia facit. Lupus si prius hominem videat quam ab homine videatur, homo raucescit. Dicitur autem quod postquam ovem rapuerit, insequentibus pastoribus, ovem dentibus non ledit, sed super dorsum suum suaviter eam iacere permittit, ne forte ovis sentiens lesionem dum seipsam moveret fugam lupi retardaret. Simia si duos fetus parturit, unum odio habens, alterum diligit, illum quem amat inter brachia portat, alterum quem odio habet dorso eius vel collo adheret. Canes soli nomina sua cognoscunt, dominos suos tenerissime diligunt et pro eis morti se exponunt; corpora mortuorum dominorum, nulla fame compellente, relinquunt; quamvis autem libenter dormirent, hospitia domini sui nocte vigilantes custodiunt. Musio seu murilegus tam acute cernit ut fulgore luminis superet tenebras noctis. Mustela serpentes et mures persequitur, ingenio autem callida in domibus ubi fetus nutrit transferendo frequenter locum mutat ne reperiantur. Hericius talis est prudentie: dum abscindit uvas de vite vel poma de arbore, super ea sese volutans, aculeis adherentia secum defert; qui etiam dum aliquid persenserit, statim in globum collectus ad arma se convertit. Agnus talis est nature quod matrem suam statim natus inter omnes alias oves balatu cognoscit; lupum autem abhorrens, licet nunquam prius ipsum viderit, statim fugit, qui tamen viso equo vel alio animali nec fugit, nec timet.

Aquila pullos suos unguibus suspensos radiis solis obiicit; quos autem immobilem tenere viderit aciem, tanquam genere dignos conservat et pascit, si quos flectere viderit obtutum, tanquam degeneres abiicit; quando autem senecta gravatur, sublime volans omnes nubes transcendit, ex calore autem solis propinqui oculorum eius caligo consumitur, et penne eius graves alleviantur statimque cum impetu descendens aquis immergitur, et ita iuventus eius renovatur. Rostrum autem aduncum petre allidens sublato veteri novum recuperat ut cibum capere valeat. Turtur quandiu maritus eius vivit nunquam ab eo recedit; quo mortuo, nunquam alii copulatur, sed solitaria incedens siccis arborum ramis insidet, gemens et tristis. Corvus pullos non pascit nisi, plumis nigrescentibus, proprii coloris similitudinem agnoscat. Grues volant ordine litterato; que autem preest agmini, voce castigat alias ut ordinem non deferant; qua raucescente, alia succedit eidem officio deputata. Nocte vero inter se excubias dividunt, unguibus autem lapillos suspensos tenent, quibus somnolentas arguant si lapides decidant; in senectute autem nigrescunt. Ciconie dum maria transeunt, cornices duces earum exercitum precedunt; maxima autem illis est cura fetus et affectio, adeo ut dum nidos propensius fovent, assiduo accubitu plumas exuant; serpentibus autem inimicantur. Struthio ferrum comedit, ova autem sua fovere negligens in pulvere relinquit; ibi autem fotu pulveris animantur. Ardea dum altius volat, tempestatem significat, adeo enim imbres et procellas formidat, quod omnes nubes volando transcendit. Monedula, si aurum vel monetam invenit, furatur et abscondit. Pavo, cum inspicitur et laudatur, caudam in circulum extendendo flectit et pulchretudinem ostendit. Hinc autem pedum deformitatem cum prospicit, caudam deponit. Pavo vocem habet terribilem, incessum simplicem, caput serpentinum, pectus sapphyrium, pennas aliquantum ruffas, caudam longam et oculatam. Accipitres dum viderint pullos tentare posse volatus, escas eis non deferunt, sed pennis eos verberant et a nidis precipitant, atque teneros ad predam compellunt, ne adulti pigri fiant. Accipiter silvestris domesticas rapit aves et statim devorat, domesticus silvestres rapit et domino suo reservat. Palumbes genus est columbarum que amisso corporali consorte, solitaria incedit, nec quicquam viride ad requiescendum petit neque carnalem copulam ultra requirit. Columba pullos alienos nutrit, umbram accipitris in aquis prospicit, in alto nidificat ubi male bestie attingere non possint; gemitum habet pro cantu, mortinico non vivit, sed puro grano, felle caret, gregatim incedit, nulli rostro nocet.

Upupa avis est spurcissima, cristis erectis galeata, semper in sepulchris vel stercoribus commoratur; cuius sanguine quisquis se iniunxerit, dormitum pergens demones quasi suffocantes se videbit. Hirundines lapsura culmina nunquam petunt, a aliis avibus tanquam sacre nunquam infestantur. Hirundo residens non comedit sed escas in aere volando rapit, cognoscit autem tempus adventus sui. Perdrix avis est immunda et dolosa, alteri ova diripiens, fovet ea. Sed pulli dum proprie matris vocem audiunt, hanc que fovit relinquunt et ad eam que genuit confugiunt. Si quis ad nidos suos accesserit, obviam ei occurrunt pedum vel alarum debilitatem simulantes, et quasi statim capi possint gressus fingunt tardiores; postquam autem longius a nidis homines paulatim traxerint, statim avolant. Pulli autem, cum se deprehendi metuunt, glebulas pedibus attollentes sub eis latentes absconduntur. Bubo absconditur de die, querit escam de nocte, aves veretur; nam eam omnes aves persequuntur et dilaniant quando eam rapere et capere possunt. Vultur exercitus sequitur ut mortuorum cadaveribus satietur; libenter autem pedibus graditur unde a quibusdam ‘gradipes’ appellatur. Coturnices estate depulsa maria transmeant, morbum caducum sicut homines patiuntur. Cygnus plumas habet et candidas, sed carnes nigras; dicitur autem quod citharedis canentibus advolat et cantum suum ad modum cithare aptat.